In the bustling district of Lalbaug, Mumbai, where aged textile mills once operated, novel towers of glass and concrete are reshaping the skyline. Construction sites across the city prominently display boards showing temperature, humidity, and air quality index (AQI) readings, which often fall within the “moderate” band. However, the constant dust from construction envelops the area, coating tea stalls and settling on parked scooters. Amid this haze, workers in hard hats navigate what appears to be a harmless environment, yet inside local pharmacies, a different narrative unfolds: inhaler sales are at an all-time high, signaling a rise in respiratory problems. Pulmonologists report longer coughs, increased wheezing, and more first-time asthma diagnoses among residents.
Historically, India’s air pollution crisis has been characterized as a seasonal issue, notably in Delhi, where winter smog prompts school closures and heightened public concern. However, the situation in Mumbai reveals a graver reality: air pollution is no longer confined to a specific season and is not solely a Delhi problem. Dangerous levels of air pollution persist across Indian cities throughout the year, impacting public health and economic productivity.
According to Dr. Lancelot Pinto, consultant pulmonologist and epidemiologist at PD Hinduja Hospital in Mumbai, the prevailing narrative that frames air pollution spikes as seasonal obscures the greater health burden tied to long-term exposure. “Most mortality linked to air pollution comes from long-term exposure, not short spikes,” he states. The cumulative effects of this pollution contribute to heart diseases, strokes, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which is already the second leading cause of death in India. Pinto warns that continued exposure to polluted urban air could eventually lead to increased cancer risks.
The complexity of attributing specific health issues to pollution complicates public understanding. Invisible pollutants, such as ground-level ozone and nitrogen oxides, pose serious health risks, making it challenging to directly link individual health events to pollution. Dr. Pinto reflects on the lack of cough surveillance in the city, suggesting that almost everyone in Mumbai likely experienced a cough lasting over a week in recent months, although he cannot definitively prove it. “Inhaler sales being at an all-time high should tell us something,” he adds.
Shifting the Focus on Air Quality
Health experts assert that there is effectively no safe threshold for fine particulate matter (PM2.5). Even levels considered “moderate,” when sustained over years, can increase risks for cardiovascular diseases, lung cancer, and cognitive decline. Yet policy responses often lag behind visible crises. For instance, when Delhi’s air turns grey in winter, immediate crisis management is employed, while the less dramatic but steady pollution levels in cities like Mumbai fade from political focus.
Nimish Singh, director of the Institute for Governance & Sustainable Development, emphasizes that the crisis extends beyond Delhi. Adjusted for population and economic output, several western and southern Indian cities have comparable or worse air quality. “The crisis is not confined to the capital; This proves a multi-city structural problem,” he asserts. Singh as well underscores the importance of recognizing invisible pollutants, which can pose serious health risks even when air quality appears relatively clear.
India has developed a robust air quality governance framework over the past decade, exemplified by the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) launched in 2019. This program now encompasses over 130 non-attainment cities—urban areas that have failed to meet national ambient air quality standards for more than five years. The monitoring network has expanded to cover 1,500 stations across 540 cities, allowing for better tracking and response strategies.
Challenges in Implementation
Pallavi Joshi, an associate fellow at The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), notes that this monitoring expansion is crucial for effective policy action. “The monitoring network has significantly improved, and several cities have reported reductions in PM10 levels compared with baseline years,” she states. The establishment of the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) highlights the need for coordinated efforts across state lines, as pollution does not respect geographic boundaries. Notably, emissions from surrounding states like Haryana and Punjab contribute significantly to Delhi’s air quality issues.
Despite these advancements, significant gaps remain in enforcement and capacity. Independent analyses indicate staffing shortages in state pollution control boards, particularly in technical and inspection roles. In May 2025, the Supreme Court addressed these issues, highlighting substantial vacancies and calling for modernization and timely recruitment. Municipal capacities also present challenges, especially in cities where local pollution sources, such as construction dust and waste burning, are prevalent. Enforcement often exists only on paper, as seen with AQI boards at construction sites that, while mandated, are rarely audited.
A Complex Problem
Scientific insights reveal that non-winter PM2.5 levels arise from a mix of local emissions and regional contributions. In major cities, local sources account for a significant portion of these pollutants, but in areas like the Indo-Gangetic plains, regional pollution may surpass local contributions. This indicates that air quality issues are not merely urban but are influenced by broader geographic and meteorological factors.
As climate variability exacerbates air quality issues, it becomes increasingly clear that India must expedite emissions reductions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change describes a “climate penalty,” where warming temperatures worsen air quality despite stable emissions. This situation forces India to cut emissions faster to mitigate the climate-driven challenges ahead.
Political dynamics also play a crucial role in addressing air pollution. Ashwin Mahesh, a climatologist, argues that air pollution is often viewed as a technical challenge rather than a political one. “There isn’t yet a strong constituency for clean air,” he notes, emphasizing the need for a collective political response to this pressing issue.
the burden of air pollution is not equal. Sociologist Sanchari Basu Chaudhuri points out that low-income communities often bear the brunt of air pollution, with inadequate resources to cope. Clean air is often perceived as a luxury rather than a basic right, leading to systemic disparities in health outcomes. The economic implications are staggering, with air pollution costing India nearly 6% of its GDP annually and leading to substantial healthcare expenses.
As the conversation on air quality continues, experts advocate for a shift in focus from merely counting “bad AQI days” to reducing overall population exposure to pollution. Effective governance requires aligned efforts across regions, with a commitment to cleaner industries and sustainable urban planning.
The question is no longer whether air quality will worsen in the winter; it is about recognizing that the crisis is year-round and demands immediate, coordinated action. The challenge lies in whether India can mobilize the necessary political will to confront this ongoing public health emergency.