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Canada’s arctic Security Strategy and NORAD Modernization

Canada’s Historical Contribution: For over 60 years, Canada’s primary contribution to US security has been hosting and operating radar lines in northern Canada, most notably the north Warning System.
purpose of Radar Systems: These systems provided early warning of nuclear attacks from the USSR/Russia, enabling the US to launch retaliatory missiles. Canada played a central role in “Mutually Assured Destruction.”
NORAD Modernization Investment: Canada is investing billions of dollars to upgrade its Arctic radars, making it the most expensive defense investment in the North. Shared Interest: Despite political differences (like those with the Trump management), the early warning of nuclear attacks remains a crucial shared interest between Canada and the US.

Climate Change’s Impact on Canada’s Defense Posture

Overshadowed in Elections: Climate change was not a dominant issue in the 2025 Canadian election, partly due to its timing and the focus on Donald Trump’s aspirations for Canada.
Extreme Weather Events: Canada is experiencing longer, more intense, and widespread forest fires, along with other extreme weather like droughts, floods, and hurricanes.
Conflicting Energy Policy: The new Canadian government faces a challenge in expanding oil and gas exports while acknowledging the urgent need to reduce fossil fuel use. Strain on Military Capabilities: The Canadian military is increasingly tasked with domestic disaster relief,including evacuations due to forest fires.
Arctic Accessibility and Threats:
Increased Accessibility: Melting sea ice makes the Arctic more accessible, potentially for “bad actors.”
New Hazards: Climate change also leads to more icebergs and “bergy bits/growlers” from faster-moving glaciers, posing meaningful dangers to shipping.
Ground Access Challenges: Melting permafrost is making ground access more arduous by destabilizing buildings, roads, and pipelines.
Arctic as a Defense: The remote, extreme, and hazardous nature of the arctic remains Canada’s strongest defense in the region.
Canadian Military’s Arctic Mission: The primary mission for the Canadian military in the Arctic is search-and-rescue, with an increasing focus on disaster relief.

Advice for Young Scholars of International Relations

Passion is Key: Work on topics you are passionate about, as it makes the work more engaging.
Don’t Follow the Herd: By not adhering to conventional thinking, scholars can be the first to identify new problems or puzzles in international relations.
* prospect to Define and Solve: Identifying and addressing these novel issues allows scholars to play a role in defining, analyzing, theorizing, and solving new phenomena that existing literature cannot explain.

How does Arctic amplification impact traditional notions of Arctic sovereignty, according to Byers?

Byers on the Arctic, Climate Change, and the Future of Sovereignty

The Shifting Geopolitical Landscape of the Arctic

michael Byers, a leading scholar on Arctic issues, consistently highlights the interconnectedness of climate change, resource competition, and the evolving concept of sovereignty in the Arctic region. His work emphasizes that the rapid environmental transformations are not simply ecological concerns, but basic drivers of geopolitical shifts. The Arctic’s warming rate is considerably faster than the global average – a phenomenon known as Arctic amplification – leading to shrinking sea ice, thawing permafrost, and altered ecosystems. This, in turn, opens up new shipping routes, access to previously inaccessible resources (oil, gas, minerals), and intensifies existing territorial disputes.

Understanding byers’ perspective requires acknowledging the ancient context of Arctic sovereignty. Traditionally,claims were based on proximity,historical usage,and assertions of effective control. however, climate change is challenging these established norms.

Climate Change as a Sovereignty Disruptor

Byers argues that climate change is actively disrupting traditional notions of sovereignty in the arctic. Here’s how:

Erosion of Landmass: Thawing permafrost and coastal erosion are physically diminishing landmasses claimed by Arctic states (Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States). This raises questions about the validity of territorial claims based on geographical features.

Changing Maritime Boundaries: The shrinking sea ice is opening up the Northwest Passage and the Northern Sea Route,creating new potential shipping lanes. Disputes over the legal status of these waterways – whether they are international straits or internal waters under national jurisdiction – are intensifying. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is central to these debates, but interpretations vary.

Indigenous Rights and Sovereignty: Byers consistently emphasizes the importance of recognizing Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination in the Arctic. Climate change disproportionately impacts indigenous communities, threatening their traditional ways of life and challenging their rights to land and resources. Ignoring Indigenous perspectives undermines any legitimate claim to Arctic sovereignty.

Increased External Actors: As the Arctic becomes more accessible, non-Arctic states (like China) are increasing their presence and influence in the region, further complicating the sovereignty equation. China’s self-declared “near-arctic State” status and its investments in arctic infrastructure are viewed with concern by some.

Resource Competition and the “Arctic Rush”

The receding ice is unlocking vast reserves of natural resources, fueling what some call an “Arctic rush.” Byers cautions against a purely resource-driven approach to Arctic development,arguing that it risks exacerbating geopolitical tensions and environmental damage.

Oil and Gas Exploration: The Arctic is estimated to hold significant untapped oil and gas reserves. However, extraction is technically challenging, environmentally risky, and possibly economically unviable given fluctuating global energy prices.

Mineral Resources: The region is also rich in minerals like zinc, nickel, copper, and rare earth elements, crucial for modern technologies. Increased mining activity raises concerns about environmental pollution and the impact on local ecosystems.

Fisheries: As sea ice retreats,new areas become accessible for fishing. This raises concerns about overfishing and the sustainable management of Arctic fisheries. The Central arctic ocean Fisheries Agreement is a step towards responsible management, but enforcement remains a challenge.

Strengthening the Arctic Council: The Arctic Council is the primary intergovernmental forum for promoting cooperation in the Arctic. byers believes it needs to be strengthened and given greater authority to address emerging challenges.

Adhering to UNCLOS: Clear and consistent application of UNCLOS is crucial for resolving maritime boundary disputes and ensuring freedom of navigation.

Promoting Scientific Research: Continued scientific research is essential for understanding the impacts of climate change on the arctic and informing policy decisions.

* Enhanced Maritime Domain Awareness: Increased surveillance and monitoring capabilities are needed to ensure safety and security in the Arctic.

Case Study: The Lomonosov Ridge Dispute

The dispute over the Lomonosov Ridge, an underwater mountain range extending across the Arctic Ocean