In an era where global power dynamics are shifting at an unprecedented pace, a latest book by political scientist Sasikumar Sundaram offers a fresh lens on how emerging states are reshaping the international order—not just through military or economic might, but through the strategic use of rhetoric. Rhetorical Powers: How Rising States Shape International Order, published by Columbia University Press, argues that the way nations frame their ambitions, grievances, and visions can redefine alliances, norms, and even the rules of global governance. The work arrives at a critical moment, as traditional Western dominance faces challenges from powers like China, India, and regional blocs asserting their influence in ways that defy conventional diplomatic playbooks.
Sundaram’s analysis zeroes in on the often-overlooked role of language in international relations. While scholars have long studied hard power (military force) and soft power (cultural influence), Rhetorical Powers introduces a third dimension: the persuasive narratives that rising states deploy to legitimize their actions, rally allies, and challenge existing hierarchies. The book’s central thesis—that rhetoric is not merely a tool of diplomacy but a form of power in itself—has sparked debate among policymakers and academics alike, particularly as nations like Russia and China increasingly frame their foreign policies in terms of historical grievances, sovereignty, and alternative visions of global order.
At the heart of Sundaram’s argument is the idea that rhetoric operates as a “force multiplier” for states seeking to punch above their weight. For example, China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is not just an infrastructure project but a narrative about connectivity, mutual benefit, and a “community of shared future for mankind.” Similarly, India’s emphasis on “strategic autonomy” and its role as a “voice of the Global South” in forums like the G20 reflects a deliberate rhetorical strategy to position itself as a bridge between developed and developing nations. These narratives, Sundaram contends, are not empty slogans but carefully crafted tools that shape perceptions, mobilize support, and even constrain the actions of more powerful states.
The Mechanics of Rhetorical Power
Sundaram’s framework breaks down rhetorical power into three core components: framing, legitimation, and institutionalization. Framing refers to how states define issues—whether as threats, opportunities, or injustices—to shape how others perceive them. For instance, Russia’s justification for its 2022 invasion of Ukraine as a “denazification” campaign was a deliberate attempt to frame the conflict in moral terms, despite widespread international condemnation. While the narrative failed to gain traction in the West, it resonated with some audiences in the Global South, illustrating how framing can create divergent interpretations of the same event.
Legitimation, the second component, involves the use of historical, legal, or moral arguments to justify actions that might otherwise be seen as violations of international norms. China’s claims in the South China Sea, for example, are often buttressed by appeals to “historical rights” and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), even as its actions are challenged by neighboring states and international tribunals. Sundaram notes that such rhetorical strategies can create “normative ambiguity,” allowing rising states to operate in gray zones where traditional rules are contested.
The third component, institutionalization, explores how rhetoric can be embedded in international institutions to create lasting influence. Sundaram highlights the role of the BRICS grouping (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) in promoting an alternative vision of global governance—one that emphasizes sovereignty, non-interference, and multipolarity. By establishing institutions like the New Development Bank (NDB) and the Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA), BRICS members have not only provided financial alternatives to Western-dominated institutions like the IMF and World Bank but have also institutionalized their rhetorical critiques of the existing order.
Case Studies: Rhetoric in Action
To illustrate his theory, Sundaram examines several case studies where rhetoric has played a decisive role in shaping international outcomes. One of the most compelling is Turkey’s use of humanitarian and religious narratives to expand its influence in the Middle East and Africa. Under President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Turkey has positioned itself as a defender of Muslim communities worldwide, from Palestine to Myanmar. This rhetorical strategy has allowed Ankara to build alliances beyond its traditional NATO partners, even as its military interventions in Syria and Libya have drawn criticism.
Another case study focuses on South Africa’s role in advocating for the Global South within the International Criminal Court (ICC). By framing Western interventions in Africa as neocolonial and pushing for reforms to the ICC’s structure, South Africa has used rhetoric to challenge the court’s legitimacy while simultaneously positioning itself as a leader of the continent. Sundaram argues that such efforts demonstrate how rising states can use institutional platforms to amplify their narratives, even when their material power remains limited.
Perhaps the most contentious example is China’s use of rhetoric to counter Western human rights critiques. Beijing has increasingly framed human rights as a matter of “national conditions,” arguing that Western standards are not universally applicable. This narrative has gained traction in some African and Asian countries, where leaders have echoed China’s calls for “non-interference” in domestic affairs. Sundaram’s analysis suggests that this rhetorical shift is not merely defensive but part of a broader strategy to reshape global norms around sovereignty and development.
Implications for the Future of Global Order
The rise of rhetorical power has profound implications for the future of international relations. Traditional powers like the United States and the European Union have long relied on their ability to set the agenda in global institutions, from the United Nations to the World Trade Organization. However, as rising states refine their rhetorical strategies, they are increasingly able to challenge Western narratives and propose alternative frameworks. Sundaram warns that this could lead to a more fragmented international order, where competing visions of governance, security, and justice coexist uneasily.
One of the book’s most provocative claims is that rhetorical power may be more sustainable than military or economic power in the long run. While sanctions, trade wars, and military interventions can be costly and divisive, narratives are relatively low-cost and can endure even when material power wanes. For example, despite its economic struggles, Russia has maintained influence in parts of the Global South by framing its actions in Ukraine as a struggle against Western hegemony. Similarly, China’s Belt and Road Initiative continues to attract partners, even as some projects face financial and political challenges, because the narrative of “win-win cooperation” remains compelling.
Sundaram also raises critical questions about the limits of rhetorical power. Can narratives alone sustain alliances, or do they require material backing? How do rising states navigate the tension between appealing to domestic audiences and projecting influence abroad? And what happens when rhetorical strategies collide, as seen in the competing narratives around the Israel-Hamas war, where Western, Arab, and Global South perspectives often clash? These questions underscore the complexity of a world where power is increasingly defined by the ability to shape perceptions as much as by military or economic strength.
What’s Next for the Study of Rhetorical Power?
As Rhetorical Powers gains traction in academic and policy circles, its ideas are likely to spark further research into how language shapes international relations. Scholars may explore how digital platforms and social media amplify or distort rhetorical strategies, particularly as states like China and Russia invest heavily in disinformation campaigns. Others might examine how non-state actors, from corporations to civil society groups, use rhetoric to influence global debates, as seen in climate activism or tech regulation.
For policymakers, Sundaram’s work offers a cautionary tale: in an era where narratives can be as powerful as tanks or trade deals, understanding the rhetorical strategies of rising states is essential. The book suggests that Western powers may demand to rethink their own communication strategies, moving beyond traditional diplomacy to engage with the narratives that resonate in the Global South. At the same time, rising states will need to grapple with the challenges of maintaining credibility, especially when their actions contradict their rhetoric—a tension that has already emerged in China’s treatment of Uyghur Muslims or Russia’s claims of “denazification” in Ukraine.
Rhetorical Powers challenges readers to reconsider what power looks like in the 21st century. In a world where information travels faster than ever and identities are increasingly fluid, the ability to craft compelling narratives may be the most potent tool of all. As Sundaram writes, “The battle for the future of the international order is not just being fought on battlefields or in boardrooms, but in the realm of ideas—and those who control the narrative may well control the world.”
What do you think? Is rhetoric becoming the new currency of global power, or is it merely a supplement to traditional forms of influence? Share your thoughts in the comments below, and don’t forget to share this article with anyone interested in the future of international relations.
